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Problem structuring methods

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Information mapping</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

Topics and fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul><li><a href="Business_decision_mapping" title="Business decision mapping">Business decision mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_and_information_visualization" title="Data and information visualization">Data visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_communication" title="Graphic communication">Graphic communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Infographic" title="Infographic">Infographics</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_design" title="Information design">Information design</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge visualization">Knowledge visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li>

<li><a href="Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)" title="Morphological analysis (problem-solving)">Morphological analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology (information science)</a></li>

<li><a href="Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schema (psychology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_language" title="Visual language">Visual language</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

Node–link approaches</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul><li><a href="Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">Cognitive map</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Concept lattice">Concept lattice</a></li>

<li><a href="Concept_map" title="Concept map">Concept map</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptual_graph" title="Conceptual graph">Conceptual graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_tree" title="Decision tree">Decision tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Dendrogram" title="Dendrogram">Dendrogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperbolic_tree" title="Hyperbolic tree">Hyperbolic tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li>

<li><a href="Issue-based_information_system" title="Issue-based information system">Issue map</a></li>

<li><a href="Issue_tree" title="Issue tree">Issue tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Layered_graph_drawing" title="Layered graph drawing">Layered graph drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-role_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Object-role modeling">Object-role modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Organizational chart</a></li>

<li><a href="Pathfinder_network" title="Pathfinder network">Pathfinder network</a></li>

<li><a href="Radial_tree" title="Radial tree">Radial tree</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociogram" title="Sociogram">Sociogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Topic_map" title="Topic map">Topic map</a></li>

<li><a href="Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">Tree structure</a></li>

<li><a href="ZigZag_(software)" title="ZigZag (software)">ZigZag</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;">

See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.9em;">

<ul><li><a href="Design_rationale" title="Design rationale">Design rationale</a></li>

<li><a href="Diagrammatic_reasoning" title="Diagrammatic reasoning">Diagrammatic reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">Entity–relationship model</a></li>

<li><a href="Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_concept-_and_mind-mapping_software" title="List of concept- and mind-mapping software">List of concept- and mind-mapping software</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology (philosophy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Treemapping" title="Treemapping">Treemapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">Wicked problem</a></li></ul></td>

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Problem structuring methods (PSMs) are a group of techniques used to <a href="Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">model</a> or to <a href="Diagram" title="Diagram">map</a> the nature or structure of a situation or <a href="State_of_affairs_(sociology)" title="State of affairs (sociology)">state of affairs</a> that some people want to change.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1162-1">[1]</a> PSMs are usually used by a group of people in <a href="Collaboration" title="Collaboration">collaboration</a> (rather than by a solitary individual) to create a <a href="Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">consensus</a> about, or at least to facilitate <a href="Negotiation" title="Negotiation">negotiations</a> about, what needs to change.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-1996-117-2">[2]</a> Some widely adopted PSMs<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1162-1">[1]</a> include

<ul><li><a href="Soft_systems_methodology" title="Soft systems methodology">soft systems methodology</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></li>

<li>the strategic choice approach<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li>

<li>strategic options development and analysis (SODA)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li></ul>

Unlike some <a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a> methods that assume that all the relevant issues and constraints and goals that constitute the problem are defined in advance or are uncontroversial, PSMs assume that there is no single uncontested representation of what constitutes the problem.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

PSMs are mostly used with groups of people, but PSMs have also influenced the <a href="Coaching" title="Coaching">coaching</a> and <a href="Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">counseling</a> of individuals.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

The term "problem structuring methods" as a label for these techniques began to be used in the 1980s in the field of <a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> especially after the publication of the book Rational Analysis for a Problematic World: Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Some of the methods that came to be called PSMs had been in use since the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-1996-117-2">[2]</a>

Thinkers who later came to be recognized as significant early contributors to the theory and practice of PSMs include:<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Horst_Rittel" title="Horst Rittel">Horst Rittel</a> and <a href="Melvin_M._Webber" title="Melvin M. Webber">Melvin M. Webber</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></li>

<li><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></li>

<li><a href="Colin_Eden" title="Colin Eden">Colin Eden</a> and Fran Ackermann<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_L._Flood" title="Robert L. Flood">Robert L. Flood</a> and <a href="Michael_C._Jackson" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael C. Jackson">Michael C. Jackson</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Rosenhead" title="Jonathan Rosenhead">Jonathan Rosenhead</a> and John Mingers<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_situations_that_call_for_PSMs">Types of situations that call for PSMs</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Cynefin_framework#Domains" title="Cynefin framework">Cynefin framework § Domains</a></div>

In discussions of problem structuring methods, it is common to distinguish between two different types of situations that could be considered to be problems.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64-17">[17]</a> Rittel and Webber's distinction between tame problems and <a href="Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">wicked problems</a> (<a href="#CITEREFRittelWebber1973">Rittel & Webber 1973</a>) is a well known example of such types.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64-17">[17]</a> The following table lists similar (but not exactly equivalent) distinctions made by a number of thinkers between two types of "problem" situations, which can be seen as a continuum between a left and right extreme:<a href="#cite_note-Culmsee-Awati-2013-18">[18]</a>

<caption>Different types of situations, and thinkers who named them<a href="#cite_note-Culmsee-Awati-2013-18">[18]</a>

</caption>

<th>Thinker

</th>

<th>Left extreme

</th>

<th>Right extreme

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Horst_Rittel" title="Horst Rittel">Rittel</a> & <a href="Melvin_M._Webber" title="Melvin M. Webber">Webber</a>

</td>

<td>Tame problem

</td>

<td>Wicked problem

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a>

</td>

<td>Programmed decision

</td>

<td>Non-programmed decision

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a>

</td>

<td>Puzzle / Problem

</td>

<td>Mess

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Jerome_Ravetz" title="Jerome Ravetz">Jerome Ravetz</a>

</td>

<td>Technical problem

</td>

<td>Practical problem

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Ronald_Heifetz" title="Ronald Heifetz">Ronald Heifetz</a>

</td>

<td>Technical challenge

</td>

<td>Adaptive challenge

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a>

</td>

<td>Hard systems

</td>

<td>Soft systems

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Donald_Sch%C3%B6n" title="Donald Schön">Donald Schön</a>

</td>

<td>The high ground

</td>

<td>The swamp

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Barry Johnson

</td>

<td>Problems to solve

</td>

<td>Polarities to manage

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

Tame problems (or puzzles or technical challenges) have relatively precise, straightforward formulations that are often amenable to solution with some predetermined technical fix or algorithm. It is clear when these situations have changed in such a way that the problem can be called solved.

Wicked problems (or messes or adaptive challenges) have multiple interacting issues with multiple <a href="Project_stakeholder" title="Project stakeholder">stakeholders</a> and uncertainties and no definitive formulation. These situations are complex and have no <a href="Stopping_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Stopping rule">stopping rule</a> and no ultimate test of a solution.

PSMs were developed for situations that tend toward the wicked or "soft" side, when methods are needed that assist <a href="Argumentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Argumentation">argumentation</a> about, or that generate mutual understanding of multiple perspectives on, a complex situation.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64-17">[17]</a> Other problem solving methods are better suited to situations toward the tame or "hard" side where a reliable and optimal solution is needed to a problem that can be clearly and uncontroversially defined.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div>

Problem structuring methods constitute a family of approaches that have differing purposes and techniques, and many of them had been developed independently before people began to notice their family resemblance.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64-17">[17]</a> Several scholars have noted the common and divergent characteristics among PSMs.

Eden and Ackermann identified four characteristics that problem structuring methods have in common:<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<ol><li>The methods focus on creating "a model that is populated with data that is specific to the problem situation". These cause–effect models can be analyzed (albeit in different ways by different methods), and the models are intended to facilitate conversation and negotiation between the participants.</li>

<li>The methods seek to increase the overall productivity of group processes. Productivity includes creating better agreements that are more likely to be implemented, and realizing (to the extent possible in the given situation) ideals such as <a href="Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">communicative rationality</a> and <a href="Procedural_justice" title="Procedural justice">procedural justice</a>.</li>

<li>The methods emphasize that the <a href="Facilitation_(business)" class="mw-redirect" title="Facilitation (business)">facilitation</a> of effective group processes requires some attention to, and open conversation about, power and politics within and between organizations. Power and politics can become especially important when major change is being proposed.</li>

<li>The methods provide techniques and skills for facilitation of group processes, and they appreciate that such techniques and skills are essential for effective <a href="Sensemaking" title="Sensemaking">sensemaking</a>, <a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">systems modeling</a>, and <a href="Participative_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Participative decision-making">participative decision-making</a>. People who use PSMs must pay attention to what group <a href="Facilitator" title="Facilitator">facilitators</a> call process skills (guiding interactions between people through nonlinear applications of the methods) and content skills (helping people build sufficiently comprehensive models of the given situation).</li></ol>

Rosenhead provided another list of common characteristics of PSMs, formulated in a more prescriptive style:<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1164-65-20">[20]</a>

<ul><li>Seek solutions which <a href="Satisfice" class="mw-redirect" title="Satisfice">satisfice</a> on separate dimensions rather than seeking an <a href="Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">optimal decision</a> on a single dimension.</li>

<li>Integrate hard and soft (quantitative and qualitative) data with social judgments.</li>

<li>Produce models that are as <a href="Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparent</a> as possible to and that clarify conflicts of interpretation, rather than hiding conflicts behind neutral technical language.</li>

<li>Consider people to be agents actively involved in the <a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> process, rather than as passive objects to be modeled or ignored.</li>

<li>Facilitate the problem structuring process from the bottom-up as much as possible, not only top-down from formal organizational leadership.</li>

<li>Aim to preserve options in the face of unavoidable uncertainty, rather than to base decisions on a prediction of the future.</li></ul>

An early literature review of problem structuring proposed grouping the texts reviewed into "four streams of thought" that describe some major differences between methods:<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<ul><li>the checklist stream, which is step-by-step technical problem solving (not problem structuring as it came to be defined in PSMs, so this stream does not apply to PSMs),</li>

<li>the definition stream, which is primarily modeling of relationships between variables, as described by Ackoff and others,</li>

<li>the science research stream which emphasizes doing field research and gathering quantitative data, and</li>

<li>the people stream, which "regards the definition of problems as a function of people's perceptions" as described by Checkland, Eden, and others.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compared_to_large_group_methods">Compared to large group methods</h3></div>

Mingers and Rosenhead have noted that there are similarities and differences between PSMs and large group methods such as Future Search, <a href="Open_Space_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Space Technology">Open Space Technology</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548-22">[22]</a> PSMs and large group methods both bring people together to talk about, and to share different perspectives on, a situation or state of affairs that some people want to change. However, PSMs always focus on creating a sufficiently rigorous <a href="Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">conceptual model</a> or <a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a> of the situation, whereas large group methods do not necessarily emphasize modeling, and PSMs are not necessarily used with large groups of people.<a href="#cite_note-Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compared_to_participatory_rural_appraisal">Compared to participatory rural appraisal</h3></div>

There is significant overlap or shared characteristics between PSMs and some of the techniques used in <a href="Participatory_rural_appraisal" title="Participatory rural appraisal">participatory rural appraisal</a> (PRA). Mingers and Rosenhead pointed out that in situations where people have low literacy, the nonliterate (oral and visual) techniques developed in PRA would be a necessary complement to PSMs, and the approaches to modeling in PSMs could be (and have been) used by practitioners of PRA.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

In 2004, Mingers and Rosenhead published a literature review of papers that had been published in <a href="Scholarly_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarly journal">scholarly journals</a> and that reported practical applications of PSMs.<a href="#cite_note-M&R_541–542-24">[24]</a> Their literature survey covered the period up to 1998, which was "relatively early in the development of interest in PSMs",<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and categorized 51 reported applications under the following application areas: general organizational applications; information systems; technology, resources, planning; health services; and general research. Examples of applications reported included: designing a parliamentary briefing system, modeling the <a href="San_Francisco_Zoo" title="San Francisco Zoo">San Francisco Zoo</a>, developing a <a href="Business_strategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Business strategy">business strategy</a> and <a href="Information_system" title="Information system">information system</a> strategy, planning livestock management in Nepal, regional planning in South Africa, modeling hospital outpatient services, and eliciting knowledge about pesticides.<a href="#cite_note-M&R_541–542-24">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_and_software">Technology and software</h2></div>

PSMs are a general <a href="Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> and are not necessarily dependent on electronic <a href="Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1170-26">[26]</a> but PSMs do rely on some kind of <a href="Information_graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Information graphics">shared display</a> of the models that participants are developing. The shared display could be <a href="Flip_chart" title="Flip chart">flip charts</a>, a large <a href="Whiteboard" title="Whiteboard">whiteboard</a>, <a href="Post-it_note" title="Post-it note">Post-it notes</a> on the meeting room walls, and/or a <a href="Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> connected to a <a href="Video_projector" title="Video projector">video projector</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1170-26">[26]</a> After PSMs have been used in a group work session, it is normal for a record of the session's display to be shared with participants and with other relevant people.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1170-26">[26]</a>

Software programs for supporting problem structuring include Banxia Decision Explorer and Group Explorer,<a href="#cite_note-Explorer-27">[27]</a> which implement <a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive mapping</a> for strategic options development and analysis (SODA), and <a href="Compendium_(software)" title="Compendium (software)">Compendium</a>, which implements <a href="Issue-based_information_system" title="Issue-based information system">IBIS</a> for <a href="Dialogue_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialogue mapping">dialogue mapping</a> and related methods;<a href="#cite_note-Compendium-28">[28]</a> a similar program is called Wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Such software can serve a variety of functions, such as simple technical assistance to the group facilitator during a single event, or more long-term online group <a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">decision support systems</a>.

Some practitioners prefer not to use computers during group work sessions because of the effect they have on <a href="Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a>, but such use of computers is standard in some PSMs such as SODA<a href="#cite_note-Explorer-27">[27]</a> and dialogue mapping,<a href="#cite_note-Compendium-28">[28]</a> in which computer display of models or maps is intended to guide conversation in the most efficient way.<a href="#cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1170-26">[26]</a>

In some situations additional software that is not used only for PSMs may be incorporated into the problem structuring process; examples include <a href="Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">spreadsheet</a> modeling, <a href="Comparison_of_system_dynamics_software" title="Comparison of system dynamics software">system dynamics software</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> or <a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Some practitioners, who have focused on building <a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">system dynamics</a> simulation models with groups of people, have called their work group model building (GMB) and have concluded "that GMB is another PSM".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> GMB has also been used in combination with SODA.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Causal_model" title="Causal model">Causal model</a></li>

<li><a href="Boundary_critique" title="Boundary critique">Boundary critique</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_conferencing" title="Decision conferencing">Decision conferencing</a></li>

<li><a href="Delphi_method" title="Delphi method">Delphi method</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_concept_mapping" title="Group concept mapping">Group concept mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquiry#Inquiry_in_the_pragmatic_paradigm" title="Inquiry">Inquiry § Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Method_engineering" title="Method engineering">Method engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_modeling" title="Participatory modeling">Participatory modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Policy#Policy_cycle" title="Policy">Policy § Policy cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_finding" title="Problem finding">Problem finding</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_formulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem formulation">Problem formulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_shaping" title="Problem shaping">Problem shaping</a></li>

<li><a href="Research_question" title="Research question">Research question</a></li>

<li><a href="Richards_Heuer#Structured_analytic_techniques" title="Richards Heuer">Richards Heuer § Structured analytic techniques</a></li>

<li><a href="Stakeholder_analysis" title="Stakeholder analysis">Stakeholder analysis</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1162-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1162_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1162_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, p. 1162

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rosenhead-1996-117-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-1996-117_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-1996-117_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead1996">Rosenhead 1996</a>, p. 117

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChecklandPoulter2006">Checkland & Poulter 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFriendHickling2005">Friend & Hickling 2005</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReynoldsHolwell2010">Reynolds & Holwell 2010</a>, pp. 135–190

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead1996">Rosenhead 1996</a>, p. 118

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFChatjoulisHumphreys2007">Chatjoulis & Humphreys 2007</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> For examples, see: <a href="#CITEREFNorris1985">Norris 1985</a>, p. 871; <a href="#CITEREFDunn1988">Dunn 1988</a>, p. 720; <a href="#CITEREFLandis1988">Landis 1988</a>, pp. 117–119. William N. Dunn wrote in 1988: "In the absence of appropriate problem-structuring methods, how can we expect to formulate problems that encompass the proper elements, for example, the proper policy objectives, alternatives, and expected outcomes? Given a particular problem formulation, how do we know whether all important elements have been included in the set? In short, how do we know when we have formulated an approximate solution to the right problem, as distinguished from an exact solution to the wrong problem?" (<a href="#CITEREFDunn1988">Dunn 1988</a>, p. 720)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead1989">Rosenhead 1989</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, p. 1164

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRittelWebber1973">Rittel & Webber 1973</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFAckoff1974">Ackoff 1974</a>, <a href="#CITEREFAckoff1979">Ackoff 1979</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCheckland1975">Checkland 1975</a>, <a href="#CITEREFCheckland1981">Checkland 1981</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFEdenSims1979">Eden & Sims 1979</a>, <a href="#CITEREFEden1982">Eden 1982</a>, <a href="#CITEREFEdenAckermann2006">Eden & Ackermann 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFJacksonKeys1984">Jackson & Keys 1984</a>, <a href="#CITEREFFloodJackson1991">Flood & Jackson 1991</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead1989">Rosenhead 1989</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMingersRosenhead2001">Mingers & Rosenhead 2001</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1163-64_17-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, pp. 1163–1164

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Culmsee-Awati-2013-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Culmsee-Awati-2013_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Culmsee-Awati-2013_18-1">b</a> This table is adapted from: <a href="#CITEREFCulmseeAwati2013">Culmsee & Awati 2013</a>, p. 108

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEdenAckermann2006">Eden & Ackermann 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1164-65-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1164-65_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, pp. 1164–1165

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoolleyPidd1981">Woolley & Pidd 1981</a>, pp. 203–204

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mingers-Rosenhead-2004-548_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMingersRosenhead2004">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004</a>, p. 548; examples of large group methods can be found in <a href="#CITEREFBunkerAlban2006">Bunker & Alban 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMingersRosenhead2004">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004</a>, pp. 548–549

</li>

<li id="cite_note-M&R_541–542-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-M&R_541–542_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-M&R_541–542_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMingersRosenhead2004">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004</a>, pp. 541–542

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, p. 1167

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Rosenhead-2013-1170-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1170_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1170_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1170_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenhead-2013-1170_26-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, p. 1170

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Explorer-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Explorer_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Explorer_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAckermannEden2011">Ackermann & Eden 2011</a>; <a href="#CITEREFRosenhead2013">Rosenhead 2013</a>, p. 1169

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Compendium-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Compendium_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Compendium_28-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConklin2006">Conklin 2006</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCulmseeAwati2013">Culmsee & Awati 2013</a>; <a href="#CITEREFCulmseeAwati2014">Culmsee & Awati 2014</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMackenziePiddRooksbySommerville2006">Mackenzie et al. 2006</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFRodriguez-UlloaPaucar-Caceres2005">Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres 2005</a>; <a href="#CITEREFHovmand2014">Hovmand 2014</a>, p. 83

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> For example: <a href="#CITEREFPfeifferGlaserVencatesanSchliermann-Kraus2008">Pfeiffer et al. 2008</a>; <a href="#CITEREFFerretti2016">Ferretti 2016</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndersenVennixRichardsonRouwette2007">Andersen et al. 2007</a>, p. 691

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerreraMcCardle-KeurentjesVideira2016">Herrera et al. 2016</a>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAckoff1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Ackoff, Russell Lincoln</a> (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redesigningfutur00russ">Redesigning the future: a systems approach to societal problems</a>. New York: <a href="John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0471002963</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/922908">922908</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAckoff1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Ackoff, Russell Lincoln</a> (February 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ackoffcenter.blogs.com/files/the-future-of-operational-research-is-past.pdf">"The future of operational research is past"</a> (PDF). <a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 30 (2): 93–104. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1979.22">10.1057/jors.1979.22</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3009290">3009290</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154631075">154631075</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFRosenhead1996" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670">"What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods"</a>. Interfaces. 26 (6): 117–131. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Finte.26.6.117">10.1287/inte.26.6.117</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25062196">25062196</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFRosenhead2013" class="citation book cs1">Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: <a href="Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 1162–1172. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806">10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781441911377</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751832290">751832290</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFWoolleyPidd1981" class="citation journal cs1">Woolley, Robert N.; Pidd, Michael (March 1981). "Problem structuring—a literature review". <a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 32 (3): 197–206. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1981.42">10.1057/jors.1981.42</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2581061">2581061</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62223595">62223595</a>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFYearworth2024" class="citation book cs1">Yearworth, Mike (2024). Problem structuring: methodology in practice. New York: <a href="John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119744856">10.1002/9781119744856</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781119744825</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1428781803">1428781803</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFVeldhuisScheepstalRouwetteLogtens2015" class="citation journal cs1">Veldhuis, Guido Arjan; Scheepstal, Peter van; Rouwette, Etiënne; Logtens, Tom (June 2015). "Collaborative problem structuring using MARVEL". EURO Journal on Decision Processes. 3 (3–4): 249–273. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40070-015-0045-1">10.1007/s40070-015-0045-1</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F162275">2066/162275</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108617231">108617231</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBrysonEdenAckermann2014" class="citation book cs1">Bryson, John M.; Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N1vOAwAAQBAJ">Visual strategy: a workbook for strategy mapping for public and nonprofit organizations</a>. San Francisco: <a href="Jossey-Bass" class="mw-redirect" title="Jossey-Bass">Jossey-Bass</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781118605929</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883462253">883462253</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCroninMidgleyJackson2014" class="citation journal cs1">Cronin, Karen; <a href="Gerald_Midgley" title="Gerald Midgley">Midgley, Gerald</a>; Jackson, Laurie Skuba (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277450288">"Issues mapping: a problem structuring method for addressing science and technology conflicts"</a>. <a href="European_Journal_of_Operational_Research" title="European Journal of Operational Research">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 233 (1): 145–158. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.08.012">10.1016/j.ejor.2013.08.012</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFGroetker2014" class="citation book cs1">Groetker, Ralf (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA309">"Visualized problem structuring for stakeholder consultations: enabling informed decision-making with argument maps and the argument browser"</a>. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.). Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 309–332. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6470-8_14">10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_14</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781447164692</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890438015">890438015</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHoganHarneyBroome2014" class="citation book cs1">Hogan, Michael J.; Harney, Owen M.; Broome, Benjamin J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271326448">"Integrating Argument Mapping with Systems Thinking Tools: Advancing Applied Systems Science"</a>. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.). Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 401–421. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6470-8_18">10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_18</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781447164692</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890438015">890438015</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJordan2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jordan, Thomas (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267642714">"Deliberative methods for complex issues: a typology of functions that may need scaffolding"</a>. Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal (13): 50–71.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFYearworthWhite2014" class="citation journal cs1">Yearworth, Mike; White, Leroy (September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/26098/1/EJOR-S-13-03166-RevisedManuscript-300114.pdf">"The non-codified use of problem structuring methods and the need for a generic constitutive definition"</a> (PDF). <a href="European_Journal_of_Operational_Research" title="European Journal of Operational Research">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 237 (3): 932–945. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2014.02.015">10.1016/j.ejor.2014.02.015</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F26098">10871/26098</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30180206">30180206</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFerreira2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ferreira, J. Soeiro (June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositorio.inesctec.pt/handle/123456789/5876">"Multimethodology in metaheuristics"</a>. <a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 64 (6): 873–883. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.2012.88">10.1057/jors.2012.88</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1170426">1170426</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfeSastrowardoyo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Metcalfe, Mike; Sastrowardoyo, Saras (November 2013). "Complex project conceptualisation and argument mapping". International Journal of Project Management. 31 (8): 1129–1138. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijproman.2013.01.004">10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.01.004</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMidgleyCavanaBrocklesbyFoote2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Gerald_Midgley" title="Gerald Midgley">Midgley, Gerald</a>; Cavana, Robert Y.; Brocklesby, John; Foote, Jeff L.; Wood, David R. R.; Ahuriri-Driscoll, Annabel (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.047">"Towards a new framework for evaluating systemic problem structuring methods"</a>. <a href="European_Journal_of_Operational_Research" title="European Journal of Operational Research">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 229 (1): 143–154. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.047">10.1016/j.ejor.2013.01.047</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFGolnamTapandjievaVianaWegmann2011" class="citation book cs1">Golnam, Arash; Tapandjieva, Gorica; Viana, Sérgio; Wegmann, Alain (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266877552">"Problem structuring methods in system dynamics modeling: a cognitive fit perspective"</a>. In Lyneis, James M.; Richardson, George P. (eds.). 29th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2011: Washington, DC, USA, 24–28 July 2011: proceedings. Albany: <a href="System_Dynamics_Society" title="System Dynamics Society">System Dynamics Society</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781618392299</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/772917674">772917674</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFRoam2011" class="citation book cs1">Roam, Dan (2011). Blah blah blah: what to do when words don't work. New York: <a href="Penguin_Group" title="Penguin Group">Portfolio/Penguin</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781591844594</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBeltonStewart2010" class="citation book cs1">Belton, Valerie; Stewart, Theodor (2010). "Problem Structuring and Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis". In Ehrgott, Matthias; Figueira, José; Greco, Salvatore (eds.). Trends in Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis. International series in operations research & management science. Vol. 142. New York: <a href="Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 209–239. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-5904-1_8">10.1007/978-1-4419-5904-1_8</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781441959034</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFKilgourEden2010" class="citation book cs1">Kilgour, D. Marc; Eden, Colin, eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tGsQl-wxbKAC">Handbook of group decision and negotiation</a>. Advances in group decision and negotiation. Vol. 4. New York: <a href="Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9097-3">10.1007/978-90-481-9097-3</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789048190966</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109009575">109009575</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCuppen2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Cuppen, E. H. W. J. (Eefje) (2009). Putting perspectives into participation: constructive conflict methodology for problem structuring in stakeholder dialogues (Ph.D. thesis). Amsterdam. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1871%2F15611">1871/15611</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789088911354</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890620243">890620243</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHürlimann2009" class="citation book cs1">Hürlimann, Mark (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igr9qNtw3doC">Dealing with real-world complexity: limits, enhancements and new approaches for policy makers</a>. Gabler Edition Wissenschaft. Wiesbaden: Betriebswirtschaftlicher Verlag Gabler. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-8349-8074-8">10.1007/978-3-8349-8074-8</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783834980748</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/405547025">405547025</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFKopainskyLuna-Reyes2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kopainsky, Birgit; Luna-Reyes, Luis F. (July 2008). "Closing the loop: promoting synergies with other theory building approaches to improve system dynamics practice". <a href="Systems_Research_and_Behavioral_Science" title="Systems Research and Behavioral Science">Systems Research and Behavioral Science</a>. 25 (4): 471–486. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsres.913">10.1002/sres.913</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFWaltner-ToewsKayLister2008" class="citation book cs1">Waltner-Toews, David; Kay, James; Lister, Nina-Marie E., eds. (2008). The ecosystem approach: complexity, uncertainty, and managing for sustainability. Complexity in ecological systems series. New York: <a href="Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780231132503</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/221664360">221664360</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLenglerEppler2007" class="citation book cs1">Lengler, Ralph; Eppler, Martin J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visual-literacy.org/periodic_table/periodic_table.html">"Towards a periodic table of visualization methods for management"</a>. IASTED Proceedings of the Conference on Graphics and Visualization in Engineering (GVE 2007), Clearwater, Florida, USA. Calgary. pp. 1–6. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/244786254">244786254</a>.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMortonAckermannBelton2007" class="citation journal cs1">Morton, Alec; Ackermann, Fran; Belton, Valerie (May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/93149.pdf">"Problem structuring without workshops?: experiences with distributed interaction within a PSM process"</a> (PDF). <a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 58 (5): 547–556. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602210">10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602210</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5165781">5165781</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFO'BrienDyson2007" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Frances A.; Dyson, Robert G., eds. (2007). Supporting strategy: frameworks, methods and models. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: <a href="John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780470057186</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/76073738">76073738</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMendozaMartins2006" class="citation journal cs1">Mendoza, Guillermo A.; Martins, H. (July 2006). "Multi-criteria decision analysis in natural resource management: a critical review of methods and new modelling paradigms". <a href="Forest_Ecology_and_Management" title="Forest Ecology and Management">Forest Ecology and Management</a>. 230 (1–3): 1–22. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.470.5541">10.1.1.470.5541</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foreco.2006.03.023">10.1016/j.foreco.2006.03.023</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMontibellerBelton2006" class="citation journal cs1">Montibeller, Gilberto; Belton, Valerie (July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bayanbox.ir/view/926013465007710647/1-Causal-Maps-and-the-Evaluation-of-Decision-Options-A-Review.pdf">"Causal maps and the evaluation of decision options—a review"</a> (PDF). <a href="Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society" title="Journal of the Operational Research Society">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 57 (7): 779–791. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602214">10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602214</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6587566">6587566</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAckermannEdenBrown2005" class="citation book cs1">Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin; Brown, Ian (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8RmMPzli5BMC">The practice of making strategy: a step-by-step guide</a>. London; Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0761944935</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56464669">56464669</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBryson2004" class="citation book cs1">Bryson, John M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLjEuBlSUoMC">Visible thinking: unlocking causal mapping for practical business results</a>. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: <a href="John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0470869154</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54805947">54805947</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFList2004" class="citation journal cs1">List, Dennis (February 2004). "Multiple pasts, converging presents, and alternative futures". Futures. 36 (1): 23–43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-3287%2803%2900140-X">10.1016/S0016-3287(03)00140-X</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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